Nineteenth-century Political Change (PASS: 14.1-14.4)

I. The Congress of Vienna, 1815

1. Political philosophies
   1. Conservatism - rule by strong monarchs and aristocracy
   2. Liberalism - rule by legislature and bourgeoisie
    
2. The Age of Metternich
   1. Restrictions on political freedom
   2. Opposition to revolution
   3. Right of great powers to intervene

 
II. Nationalist Movements

1. In Greece, Belgium, Germany, Italy, France and Spain
    
2. Revolutions of 1848
    
3. Survival of conservative order

 
III. Unification of Germany and Italy

1. Germany
   1. Division of Germany into many units
   2. The Zollverein Customs Union knits Germany together economically
   3. Failure of Liberals during 1848 revolutions
   4. Bismarck, Minister of Prussia begins unification campaign
   5. effects of a unified Germany on the balance of power
    
2. Italy
   1. Early nationalist efforts
   2. Mazzini and Cavour develop state strength in Sardinia-Piedmont
   3. Garibaldi inspires nationalism with Red Shirts
   4. The Franco-Austrian War of 1859
   5. Alliance with Bismarck in 1870 leads to triumph
   6. Composition of the new Italian state

 
IV. The Meiji Restoration in Japan

1. Background
   1. The Tokugawa state
   2. increased western influence in East Asia
   3. The Meiji Restoration

 

I. The rise of industrial economies

1. Theories of industrialization
    
   1. Communist theory

      As a political movement, communism sought to overthrow capitalism through a workers' revolution and establish a system in which property is owned by the community as a whole rather than by individuals. In theory, communism would create a classless society of abundance and freedom, in which all people enjoy equal social and economic status. In practice, communist regimes have taken the form of coercive, authoritarian governments that cared little for the plight of the working class and sought above all else to preserve their own hold on power.

   2. Dependency theory

      Dependency theory addresses the problems of poverty and economic underdevelopment throughout the world. Dependency theorists argue that dependence upon foreign capital, technology, and expertise impedes economic development in developing countries.

      Advocates of dependency theory argued that former colonial nations were underdeveloped because of their dependence on industrialized nations in the areas of foreign trade and investment. Rather than benefiting developing nations, these relationships stunted their development.

   3. Socialist theory

      Socialism, economic and social system under which essential industries and social services are publicly and cooperatively owned and democratically controlled with a view to equal opportunity and equal benefit for all. The term socialism also refers to the doctrine behind this system and the political movement inspired by it.

      Socialism was originally based in the working class and has generally been opposed to capitalism, which is based on private ownership and a free-market economy. Socialists have advocated nationalization (government ownership and control) of natural resources, basic industries, banking and credit institutions, and public utilities. Although the ultimate aim of early socialists was a communist or classless society, later socialists have increasingly concentrated on social reforms within capitalism.

      The term socialism was first used in the first half of the 19th century. The principal early theorists were British businessman and philanthropist Robert Owen and the French writers and social crusaders Claude Henri de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier. They developed concepts of ideal societies to be attained through the spread of education and expansion of cooperative communities. These theorists were later dubbed “utopian socialists” for their belief in ideal societies, or utopias

   4. Marxist theory

      Das Kapital, a study of capitalism written by German political philosopher Karl Marx with the help of Friedrich Engels, a German political economist. Published in three volumes from 1867 to 1895.

      In Das Kapital, Marx developed the theory put forth by British economist David Ricardo that the value of an object is measured by the labor required to produce it. Marx claimed that the owners of the means of production, who he called the bourgeoisie (capitalists), exploited the proletariat - that is, the working class - by paying them only a small fraction of the value of their labor and keeping the surplus value for themselves.

      Marx also claimed the competitive capitalist system forced capitalists to pay workers as little as possible and replace the workers with machinery to reduce production costs and increase profits. Marx insisted that the capitalists inevitably would grow richer and the workers poorer. Eventually the exploited workers would rebel, overthrow the capitalist system, and create a classless society. The means of production, or capital, would then be owned by the community and each person would contribute his or her best efforts and be paid according to need.

2. Geographic influences
    
3. Factors of economic and natural resources
    
4. Change from the agricultural society

 
II. Scientific and technological change

1. resources of power and production
    
2. inventions and inventors

 
III. The emergence of modern capitalism

1. Definition of capitalism

   Capitalism is the economic system in which the private ownership of property is protected by law. In most capitalist systems, the definition of property ranges from the simple goods that make up Personal property to capital goods that control the means of production, such as factories.

2. Employer and employee relations
    
3. David Ricardo and the iron law of wages and laissez faire
    
4. Class differentiation: bourgeoisie and proletariat
    
   1. The bourgeoisie are members of the upper or merchant class, whose status or power comes from employment, education, and wealth.
      • The term petite bourgeoisie, or petty bourgeoisie, is used to describe the class below the bourgeoisie but above the proletariat (usually independent operators with a small number of employees).
       
   2. The proletariat is a term used to identify a lower social class; a member of such a class is proletarian. Originally it was identified as those people who had no wealth other than their sons. The term was initially used in a derogatory sense, until Karl Marx used it as a sociological term to refer to the working class.

 
IV. Responses to industrial capitalism

1. Chartists and union movements
   • Chartism was a movement for political and social reform in the United Kingdom during the mid-19th century between 1838 and 1848.

     It takes its name from the People's Charter of 1838, which stipulated the six main aims of the movement as:

     • Suffrage for all men age 21 and over (not to be confused with Universal Suffrage)
     • Equal-sized electoral districts
     • Voting by secret ballot
     • An end to the need for a property qualification for Parliament
     • Pay for Members of Parliament
     • Annual election of Parliament
      
   • Chartism was possibly the first mass working class labour movement in the world.
      
   • The term labor movement is a broad term for the development of a collective organization of working people, to campaign in their own interest for better treatment from their employers and political governments, in particular through the implementation of specific laws governing labour relations. Labor unions are collective organizations within societies, organized for the purpose of representing the interests of workers and the working class.
     • Labor Laws
    
2. Liberal and socialist reformers
    
3. Anarchists and utopians

 
V. 19th-century colonial imperialism

1. Rationales for imperialism
    
2. Imperialism in Africa
    
3. Imperialism in Asia
    
4. Imperialism in South America
   • Hispanic American wars of independence